The spread of terrorism has raised global security concerns for its adverse repercussions on the whole world. This article outlines the transition of violent extremist organizations from terrorism to the official political process. It also analyzes the transformation of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) from a terrorist group to a political partner. It is a significant and clear example of the transition from armed conflicts to peace in Northern Ireland.
From Terrorism to Politics
Throughout history, independence movements and separatist groups have sought to achieve their goals through armed conflict and violence. Their ultimate goal was to bring about political changes, using force to impose their vision and perspectives. Some researchers believe that terrorism is a method of political violence often used by groups to achieve their goals and impose their policies, together with military mutinies, political assassinations, and small-scale guerrilla wars. Meanwhile, other researchers argue that terrorism is a purposeful activity resulting from an organization's decision that it is a politically viable method of opposing a given government. Others argue that political marginalization and economic deprivation are the leading causes of terrorism. Thus, it is evident that armed organizations emerge and commit acts of terror when multiple poor socio-political conditions coincide.
Some scholars reject any justification of armed conduct. They deny that terrorist organizations have any legitimacy whatsoever for their actions. According to them, finding the 'root causes' of terrorism legitimizes and justifies the actions of terrorist groups.
The IRA's transition from a terrorist organization to a political force is regarded as a successful example of peacebuilding and ending conflicts. The conflict with the IRA started in August 1969 and ended with the signing of the Belfast Good Friday Agreement in April 1998 between the British and Irish governments. IRA's extremism was based on three beliefs: a complete denial of British supremacy over Northern Ireland; non-cooperation with political institutions to avoid granting them legitimacy; and using violence to gain their objective of a united Ireland.
The IRA killed approximately 1,800 people between 1969 and 1994, including 600 civilians. By the late 1990s, it had amassed a massive arsenal of weapons, enough for ten years of violence. The IRA raised large sums of money through blackmail and other illegal activities, and it used brutal methods to control its community. At the time, its activities posed a significant threat to the established political system. It carried out a number of major attacks, the most notable of which occurred in July 1972, when over twenty bombs were detonated in Belfast, killing nine people and injuring 130 others. In retaliation, the British government sent tanks into IRA-controlled areas in Belfast.
On November 21, 1974, the IRA attacked two Birmingham pubs, killing 61 people and injuring 182. With nearly 500 deaths, 1974 was the deadliest year. The IRA attacked the Remembrance Sunday War Memorial Service in Enniskillen in November 1987, killing 11 civilians and injuring 63. On March 20, 1993, the IRA claimed responsibility for a bombing at a Warrington shopping center that killed 12 people and injured 20 others. Several attempts to find a political solution to the armed conflict between the IRA and the British government were made throughout the conflict, but all failed.
The British government implemented legal reforms to address discrimination issues in the early 1970s. A political agreement was reached in 1973 to establish a power-sharing government, but it failed due to the Protestant community's refusal to cooperate. Ten prisoners, mostly IRA members, died as a result of a hunger strike in 1981. After that, the conflict's political course started to take shape alongside the militancy. Sinn Fein, the IRA's political arm, played a significant role and started to formulate a workable political plan.
The British government continued to communicate with the IRA through a backdoor route until 1990 despite the rebellion and violence, but it proved unsuccessful. However, when both sides realized that they could not achieve their objectives using force and that there was no clear military solution, they decided that a ceasefire would be reached to allow room for structured negotiations between the two sides. Finally, in August 1994, the IRA declared a complete ceasefire, and as a result, a formal peace process began.
Cessation of Violence Inadequate
A ceasefire, agreeing to participate in elections, or engaging in political dialogue are inadequate for a peaceful transition. This transformation is not considered credible until armed groups condemn their previous violent behavior and completely abandon their goals that challenge the authority of the state.
States and governments often refuse any political dialogue with extremist groups, such as in the late 1990s, when the Prime Minister of Spain refused to negotiate with the Basque separatist group ETA even though they promised a ceasefire. In 2000 as well, the Turkish government refused to allow a dialogue with Kurdistan Workers' Party (KKP), because of their adherence to their identity and out of fear that this would lead to a return to their separatist demands. Armed conflicts often come to an end in one of three ways: by the victory of one of the parties (conquest peace); through geographical division and defining national boundaries (cartography); or through negotiations among conflicting parties (peace agreement). Although the IRA was armed, extremist, and revolutionary, it did not oppose democracy. Its goal was to fight for a socialist, democratic, and united Ireland. It believed that under British rule, they would be unable to achieve self-determination. However, it chose to achieve its political objectives through violence, extremism, and terrorism. As a result, the IRA's militant activities continued alongside Sinn Fein's electoral participation, and violence continued until the formal peace process began.
Phases of Peace Process
The peace process in Northern Ireland can be divided into several phases. The first phase consists of elite-level political dialogue between the two governments and political parties. The primary goal of these negotiations was to reach an agreement over the mechanism of political institutions in Northern Ireland in future. One of the steps taken in this stage of dialogue was the elections of May 1996.
On April 10, 1998, the wording of the Good Friday Agreement, which was signed by the governments of Ireland and the United Kingdom as well as eleven political parties, was agreed upon. The Agreement eliminated the Irish Republic's claim to the entire island of Ireland and recognized that Northern Ireland would remain a member of the United Kingdom. However, Northern Ireland could join a united Ireland if the majority of people there agree. Demilitarization of armed groups was another critical component of the Agreement. This was supported by major political parties.
Because the IRA refused to decommission its weapons, the DUP refused to join the Executive. The peacebuilding process continued in partnership with local parties. Elections were held to establish local governments. The security and justice systems were re-structured. A focus was dedicated to human rights, equality issues, and the disarmament of violent extremist groups. Various attempts were made to form a functional Assembly and restore the power-sharing Executive. The breakthrough happened on July 28, 2005, when the IRA formally announced an end to its armed conflict and decommissioned its weapons under the supervision of members of the Independent Monitoring Commission. Furthermore, the IRA announced that they would pursue their objectives through political and peaceful means.
As a result, Sinn Fein, the political wing of the IRA, accepted the legitimacy of the police reform process. In response, the DUP consented to participate in the power-sharing Executive with Sinn Fein. This was settled in 2006 in the St Andrews Agreement, and a new election was held in May 2007, after which the British military was no longer seen on the streets and removed its military infrastructure.
The peace process in Northern Ireland comprised an inclusive multi-party process involving the indigenous political parties, Irish and British governments and the civil society. The US government, international key actors, and the European Union have also supported the transition from armed conflict to sustainable peace.
Successful Model
Northern Ireland is an example of a successful transition from armed conflict to peace. The IRA is an important example of the transition from terrorism to politics. The IRA case study demonstrates that simply ending extremism and violence is not enough to achieve peace in a deeply divided society. It is also necessary to address the fighting situation. There will always be a high risk of violent extremist organizations re-emerging and remaining a resurfacing threat unless the core issues causing people to commit acts of violence in pursuit of their political goals are addressed, and so long as addressing violence is limited to using force.
As a result, true, comprehensive, and long-term peace would be impossible to achieve without identifying and addressing the root causes of conflict that drive «vulnerable individuals» to join armed extremist groups. The IRA constructed its structure, developed its goals, and formed its discourse based on the three foregoing beliefs: the rejection of British sovereignty; refusing to engage with established political institutions; and the use of militancy to achieve their objectives. Therefore, during the entire peace process, there was a focus on the re-structuring of political institutions, ensuring that representatives of divided communities are able to work together, and that local political parties and paramilitary actors were involved in negotiations. Beyond this internal process, international players played a pivotal role in Northern Ireland's peacebuilding.
Finally, it is evident that the transformation from armed conflict to sustainable peace and the IRA's transition from a terrorist organization to a political force provide a successful model for societies around the world that are experiencing armed conflict and unrest.